Effect size for differences

Compute effect size indices for standardized differences: Cohen's d, Hedges' g and Glass’s delta. (This function returns the population estimate.)

Both Cohen's d and Hedges' g are the estimated the standardized difference between the means of two populations. Hedges' g provides a bias correction to Cohen's d for small sample sizes. For sample sizes > 20, the results for both statistics are roughly equivalent. Glass’s delta is appropriate when the standard deviations are significantly different between the populations, as it uses only the second group's standard deviation.

cohens_d(
  x,
  y = NULL,
  data = NULL,
  pooled_sd = TRUE,
  mu = 0,
  paired = FALSE,
  ci = 0.95,
  verbose = TRUE,
  ...,
  correction
)

hedges_g(
  x,
  y = NULL,
  data = NULL,
  correction = 1,
  pooled_sd = TRUE,
  mu = 0,
  paired = FALSE,
  ci = 0.95,
  verbose = TRUE,
  ...
)

glass_delta(
  x,
  y = NULL,
  data = NULL,
  mu = 0,
  ci = 0.95,
  iterations = 200,
  verbose = TRUE,
  ...,
  correction
)

Arguments

x	A formula, a numeric vector, or a character name of one in `data`.
y	A numeric vector, a grouping (character / factor) vector, a or a character name of one in `data`. Ignored if `x` is a formula.
data	An optional data frame containing the variables.
pooled_sd	If `TRUE` (default), a `sd_pooled()` is used (assuming equal variance). Else the mean SD from both groups is used instead.
mu	a number indicating the true value of the mean (or difference in means if you are performing a two sample test).
paired	If `TRUE`, the values of `x` and `y` are considered as paired. This produces an effect size that is equivalent to the one-sample effect size on `x - y`.
ci	Confidence Interval (CI) level
verbose	Toggle warnings and messages on or off.
...	Arguments passed to or from other methods.
correction	Type of small sample bias correction to apply to produce Hedges' g. Can be `1` for Hedges and Olkin's original correction (default) or `2` for Hunter and Schmidt's correction (see McGrath & Meyer, 2006).
iterations	The number of bootstrap replicates for computing confidence intervals. Only applies when `ci` is not `NULL`.

Value

A data frame with the effect size ( Cohens_d, Hedges_g, Glass_delta) and their CIs (CI_low and CI_high).

Details

Confidence Intervals for Glass' delta

Confidence Intervals for Glass' delta are estimated using the bootstrap method.

Confidence Intervals for Glass' delta

Confidence Intervals for Glass' delta are estimated using the bootstrap method.

Note

The indices here give the population estimated standardized difference. Some statistical packages give the sample estimate instead (without applying Bessel's correction).

Confidence Intervals

Unless stated otherwise, confidence intervals are estimated using the Noncentrality parameter method; These methods searches for a the best non-central parameters (ncps) of the noncentral t-, F- or Chi-squared distribution for the desired tail-probabilities, and then convert these ncps to the corresponding effect sizes. (See full effectsize-CIs for more.)

CI Contains Zero

Keep in mind that ncp confidence intervals are inverted significance tests, and only inform us about which values are not significantly different than our sample estimate. (They do not inform us about which values are plausible, likely or compatible with our data.) Thus, when CIs contain the value 0, this should not be taken to mean that a null effect size is supported by the data; Instead this merely reflects a non-significant test statistic - i.e. the p-value is greater than alpha (Morey et al., 2016).

For positive only effect sizes (Eta squared, Cramer's V, etc.; Effect sizes associated with Chi-squared and F distributions), this applies also to cases where the lower bound of the CI is equal to 0. Even more care should be taken when the upper bound is equal to 0 - this occurs when p-value is greater than 1−alpha/2 making, the upper bound unestimatable, and the upper bound is arbitrarily sets to 0 (Steiger, 2004). For example:

eta_squared(aov(mpg ~ factor(gear) + factor(cyl), mtcars[1:7, ]))

## Parameter    | Eta2 (partial) |       90% CI
## --------------------------------------------
## factor(gear) |           0.58 | [0.00, 0.84]
## factor(cyl)  |           0.46 | [0.00, 0.78]

References

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd Ed.). New York: Routledge.
Hedges, L. V. & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (2004). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. Sage.
McGrath, R. E., & Meyer, G. J. (2006). When effect sizes disagree: the case of r and d. Psychological methods, 11(4), 386.

Examples


# two-sample tests -----------------------

# using formula interface
cohens_d(mpg ~ am, data = mtcars)
#> Cohen's d |         95% CI
#> --------------------------
#> -1.48     | [-2.27, -0.67]
#> 
#> - Estimated using pooled SD.
cohens_d(mpg ~ am, data = mtcars, pooled_sd = FALSE)
#> Cohen's d |         95% CI
#> --------------------------
#> -1.41     | [-2.17, -0.51]
#> 
#> - Estimated using un-pooled SD.
cohens_d(mpg ~ am, data = mtcars, mu = -5)
#> Cohen's d |        95% CI
#> -------------------------
#> -0.46     | [-1.17, 0.26]
#> 
#> - Deviation from a difference of -5.
#> - Estimated using pooled SD.
hedges_g(mpg ~ am, data = mtcars)
#> Hedges' g |         95% CI
#> --------------------------
#> -1.44     | [-2.21, -0.65]
#> 
#> - Estimated using pooled SD.
#> - Bias corrected using Hedges and Olkin's method.
if (require(boot)) glass_delta(mpg ~ am, data = mtcars)
#> Loading required package: boot
#> Glass' delta |         95% CI
#> -----------------------------
#> -1.17        | [-2.14, -0.70]
print(cohens_d(mpg ~ am, data = mtcars), append_CL = TRUE)
#> Cohen's d |         95% CI
#> --------------------------
#> -1.48     | [-2.27, -0.67]
#> 
#> - Estimated using pooled SD.
#> 
#> # Common Language Effect Sizes
#> 
#> Cohen's U3 | Overlap | Probability of superiority
#> -------------------------------------------------
#> 6.97%      |  45.99% |                     14.80%

# other acceptable ways to specify arguments
cohens_d(sleep$extra, sleep$group)
#> Cohen's d |        95% CI
#> -------------------------
#> -0.83     | [-1.74, 0.10]
#> 
#> - Estimated using pooled SD.
hedges_g("extra", "group", data = sleep)
#> Hedges' g |        95% CI
#> -------------------------
#> -0.80     | [-1.67, 0.09]
#> 
#> - Estimated using pooled SD.
#> - Bias corrected using Hedges and Olkin's method.
cohens_d(sleep$extra[sleep$group == 1], sleep$extra[sleep$group == 2], paired = TRUE)
#> Cohen's d |         95% CI
#> --------------------------
#> -1.28     | [-2.23, -0.44]

# one-sample tests -----------------------

cohens_d("wt", data = mtcars, mu = 3)
#> Cohen's d |        95% CI
#> -------------------------
#> 0.22      | [-0.13, 0.58]
#> 
#> - Deviation from a difference of 3.
hedges_g("wt", data = mtcars, mu = 3)
#> Hedges' g |        95% CI
#> -------------------------
#> 0.22      | [-0.13, 0.57]
#> 
#> - Deviation from a difference of 3.
#> - Bias corrected using Hedges and Olkin's method.

# interpretation -----------------------

interpret_d(0.4, rules = "cohen1988")
#> [1] "small"
#> (Rules: cohen1988)
#> 
d_to_common_language(0.4)
#> $`Cohen's U3`
#> [1] 0.6554217
#> 
#> $Overlap
#> [1] 0.8414806
#> 
#> $`Probability of superiority`
#> [1] 0.6113513
#> 
interpret_g(0.4, rules = "sawilowsky2009")
#> [1] "small"
#> (Rules: sawilowsky2009)
#> 
interpret_delta(0.4, rules = "gignac2016")
#> [1] "small"
#> (Rules: gignac2016)
#>

Arguments

Value

Details

Confidence Intervals for Glass' delta

Confidence Intervals for Glass' delta

Note

Confidence Intervals

CI Contains Zero

References

See also

Examples